Latest Geography NCERT Notes, Solutions and Extra Q & A (Class 8th to 12th)
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Class 11th Chapters
Fundamentals of Physical Geography
1. Geography As A Discipline	2. The Origin And Evolution Of The Earth	3. Interior Of The Earth
4. Distribution Of Oceans And Continents	5. Geomorphic Processes	6. Landforms And Their Evolution
7. Composition And Structure Of Atmosphere	8. Solar Radiation, Heat Balance And Temperature	9. Atmospheric Circulation And Weather Systems
10. Water In The Atmosphere	11. World Climate And Climate Change	12. Water (Oceans)
13. Movements Of Ocean Water	14. Biodiversity And Conservation
Indian Physical Environment
1. India — Location	2. Structure And Physiography	3. Drainage System
4. Climate	5. Natural Vegetation	6. Natural Hazards And Disasters: Causes, - Consequences And Management
Practical Work In Geography
1. Introduction To Maps	2. Map Scale	3. Latitude, Longitude And Time
4. Map Projections	5. Topographical Maps	6. Introduction To Remote Sensing

Chapter 1 Introduction To Maps

Introduction

Maps are fundamental tools in geography and various other fields. You have likely encountered maps representing the Earth or specific regions in many books. While the Earth is a three-dimensional object with a shape resembling a **geoid** (an oblate spheroid, bulging at the equator), a globe provides the best representation of its overall form. However, a map offers a convenient, simplified depiction of the whole or a part of the Earth's surface on a flat, two-dimensional medium, such as a piece of paper. (Figure 1.1 shows India as seen on a globe).

Image showing India on a globe, representing its location in a three-dimensional context.

Creating a map from the Earth's curved surface requires transforming the three-dimensional shape onto a two-dimensional plane. This transformation process is done using a system of **map projections**, which inevitably introduce some distortion in features like shape, area, distance, or direction. Additionally, it is impossible to show everything on the Earth's surface in its actual size on a map.

Therefore, every map is drawn at a **reduced scale**. The scale represents the ratio between distances on the map and the corresponding actual distances on the ground. For instance, if a map of your school campus were drawn at its true size, it would be as large as the campus itself. By using a scale and a projection, maps ensure that each point on the paper accurately corresponds to a location on the ground. Furthermore, the representation of various geographical features on a map is simplified using symbols, colors, and shading to make them understandable.

In essence, a map can be defined as a **selective, symbolised, and generalised representation of the whole or part of the Earth's surface on a plane surface at a reduced scale**. It's important to distinguish a map from a mere sketch. A **sketch map** is a simplified, hand-drawn representation that does not maintain a true scale or accurate orientation. Without a defined scale, a drawing is considered a sketch, not a map (Figure 1.2 contrasts a sketch and a map of Delhi).

Comparison image showing a freehand sketch map of an area (left) and a properly scaled and symbolised map of the same area (right), illustrating the difference between a sketch and a map.

This chapter will delve into the fundamental requirements for creating maps, explore different types of maps based on their purpose and scale, and discuss their various uses.

Glossary

Key terms related to maps and cartography mentioned in the chapter include:

**Cadastral Map:** A very large-scale map (e.g., 1:500 to 1:4000) used to show property boundaries and ownership, often for legal or taxation purposes.
**Cardinal Points:** The four main directions: North (N), South (S), East (E), and West (W).
**Cartography:** The art, science, and technology involved in making maps and related graphical representations, as well as their study and use.
**Generalisation (Map Generalisation):** The process of simplifying the details and features on a map to make them appropriate for the map's scale and purpose, without compromising the overall visual form.
**Geoid:** A shape that approximates the Earth's mean sea level surface, which is slightly irregular and bulges at the equator; it's the true shape of the Earth, which is not a perfect sphere.
**Map:** A selective, symbolised, and generalised representation of the whole or part of the Earth on a flat surface at a reduced scale.
**Map Series:** A collection of maps covering a specific area (like a country or region) that are all produced at the same scale, using a consistent style and standard specifications.
**Map Projection:** A systematic method for transforming the curved surface of the Earth (or a sphere representing it) onto a flat plane.
**Scale:** The ratio expressing the relationship between a distance on a map, plan, or photograph and the corresponding real-world distance on the ground.
**Sketch Map:** A basic, often hand-drawn map that does not accurately represent scale or orientation.

Essentials Of Map Making

Despite the wide variety of maps, the process of creating them involves a series of common steps or essential elements that are fundamental to cartography. These include:

Scale

Since maps are always smaller representations of the real world, the concept of **scale** is paramount. The first critical decision a map-maker makes is selecting the appropriate scale for the map. This choice is vital because the scale determines the amount of detail and the level of reality that can be effectively shown on the map. A larger scale map (e.g., 1:1000) can show much more detail for a small area, while a smaller scale map (e.g., 1:1,000,000) must simplify features to represent a vast area. Figure 1.3 illustrates how the level of information presented on a map changes with variations in scale, showing more detail as the scale becomes larger.

Projection

As maps depict the Earth's curved surface on a flat sheet of paper, a transformation process is necessary. A **map projection** is a systematic method for representing the spherical or near-spherical surface of the Earth onto a two-dimensional plane. This transformation is a crucial aspect of map-making. However, it's impossible to flatten a curved surface perfectly without introducing some form of distortion. Map projections inevitably distort aspects like directions, distances, areas, and shapes compared to their true appearance on the Earth's surface. Therefore, the selection, appropriate use, and construction of a map projection are fundamental considerations in creating an accurate and useful map for a specific purpose.

Generalisation

Every map is created with a specific purpose or objective in mind. A map showing general features like relief, drainage, settlements, and transportation networks is called a general purpose map. In contrast, a thematic or special purpose map focuses on depicting the distribution of one or more specific themes, such as population density, soil types, or industrial locations. Given that maps are drawn at a reduced scale and for a defined purpose, a map-maker must decide what information to include and how to represent it. **Map generalisation** is the process of selecting and simplifying the geographic features and data to be shown on the map, ensuring that the map contents are relevant to the theme and scale, without losing the essential character of the features. This involves making choices about what details to omit or simplify based on the map's intended use and scale.

Map Design

Effective communication is a key goal of map-making. **Map design** involves planning the visual or graphic aspects of a map to ensure it is clear, easy to read, and effectively conveys the intended information. This includes selecting appropriate symbols to represent features, choosing the right size and form for these symbols, deciding on lettering styles, specifying the width of lines, selecting colors and shades to differentiate features or show variations, and arranging all these elements, along with the map title, legend, and scale, logically within the map space. Map design is a complex process that requires understanding principles of visual communication to create an aesthetically pleasing and functionally effective map.

Map Construction And Production

The final stage in the cartographic process involves the actual drawing or compilation of the map (construction) and its reproduction for distribution (production). Historically, maps were drawn manually using pens and ink and reproduced using mechanical printing methods. However, significant technological advancements in recent times, particularly the advent of **Computer-Assisted Mapping** (using Geographic Information Systems - GIS, and cartography software) and photo-printing techniques, have revolutionized map construction and production, making the process faster, more accurate, and allowing for easier updates and customization.

History Of Map Making

The practice of map-making is deeply rooted in human history, stretching back as far as human civilization itself. The earliest known map is believed to have been discovered in Mesopotamia, drawn on a clay tablet and dating back to approximately **2,500 B.C.**

Significant advancements in the foundation of modern cartography were made by ancient **Greek and Arab geographers**. The Greeks were notable for their attempts to measure the circumference of the Earth and their early use of geographical coordinates (latitude and longitude) in map-making. Arab scholars further developed these techniques and preserved classical knowledge during periods when it was less accessible in Europe.

Map-making experienced a revitalization in the early modern period, driven by exploration and scientific curiosity. Efforts were made to create more accurate maps by developing and using different map **projections** designed to minimize specific types of distortion (like preserving true directions, distances, or areas) from the transformation of the Earth's curved surface onto a flat plane. Figure 1.4 shows an example of a historical world map by Ptolemy, illustrating the understanding of the world at that time. (Figure 1.4 shows Ptolemy's Map of the World).

Image of an old map of the world by Ptolemy, showing continents and geographical features as understood in the classical period.

In the 19th and 20th centuries, the development and use of **aerial photography** greatly supplemented traditional ground surveying methods. Aerial photographs provided a new perspective and abundant data for mapping, stimulating significant advancements in cartographic techniques.

In India, the foundations of map-making can be traced back to the **Vedic period**, where concepts of astronomy and cosmology were expressed in ancient texts and later codified into astronomical treatises (Sidhantas) by scholars like Arya Bhatta and Varahamihira. Ancient Indian scholars conceived of the known world in various ways, such as dividing it into seven 'dwipas' (continents/islands) or depicting a round world surrounded by water (Figure 1.5 and 1.6 illustrate these ancient Indian concepts).

Diagram illustrating the ancient Indian concept of the world divided into seven continents/islands (dwipas).

Diagram illustrating the ancient Indian concept of a round world surrounded by water, as described in the Mahabharata.

During the medieval period, figures like **Todarmal** in the Mughal administration pioneered detailed land surveying and map-making, integrating it as a crucial part of revenue collection procedures. Sher Shah Suri's revenue maps also contributed to mapping techniques. The establishment of the **Survey of India** in **1767** marked a significant milestone, initiating intensive topographical surveys to create detailed, up-to-date maps of the entire country. This culminated in comprehensive maps of India (then Hindustan). Today, the Survey of India remains the national mapping agency, producing maps at various scales for the country.

Types Of Maps Based On Scale

Maps can be broadly classified into different types based on the **scale** at which they are drawn. Scale determines the level of detail and the extent of the area represented.

Large-Scale Maps

**Large-scale maps** are used to show small areas in great detail. They are drawn at a relatively large ratio (meaning the denominator of the scale is small). Examples include:

**Topographical maps** at scales like 1:250,000, 1:50,000, or 1:25,000 (getting larger as the denominator decreases).
Even larger scale maps like **village maps**, **zonal plans of cities**, and **house plans**, which can be drawn at scales such as 1:4,000, 1:2,000, or 1:500.

Large-scale maps are further divided into two main types:

Cadastral Maps

Derived from the French word 'cadastre' (register of territorial property), **cadastral maps** are drawn at very large scales (e.g., 1:4,000 for villages, 1:2,000 or larger for urban areas). Their primary purpose is to show the boundaries and ownership of individual parcels of land, fields, and houses. These maps are typically prepared by government agencies for administrative purposes like collecting revenue and taxes, maintaining land records, and resolving property disputes.

Topographical Maps

**Topographical maps** are also prepared at fairly large scales (e.g., 1:250,000, 1:50,000, 1:25,000) and are based on detailed, precise ground surveys. National mapping agencies, like the Survey of India, produce these maps in standardized series covering entire countries (Figure 1.3 shows how detail varies with scale on topographical map excerpts). Topographical maps are comprehensive, showing a wide range of natural and cultural features using uniform colors and symbols, including:

Relief (elevation and landforms, often using contour lines).
Drainage networks (rivers, lakes, canals).
Land use (agricultural areas, forests).
Settlements (villages, towns, buildings).
Transportation networks (roads, railways).
Location of services and facilities (schools, post offices, wells, temples, etc.).

Small-Scale Maps

**Small-scale maps** are used to show large geographical areas, such as continents, countries, or the entire world. They are drawn at a relatively small ratio (meaning the denominator of the scale is large). Due to the large area covered, features on small-scale maps must be highly generalized and simplified. Examples include atlas maps and wall maps.

Small-scale maps are divided into:

Wall Maps

**Wall maps** are typically drawn on large sheets of paper or plastic and are designed to be displayed on walls, often in classrooms or lecture halls. Their scale is generally smaller than topographical maps but larger than atlas maps, making them suitable for showing regional or national level features with enough clarity to be seen from a distance.

Atlas Maps

**Atlas maps** are maps contained within an atlas. They are typically the smallest-scale maps, representing very large areas (continents, countries, or the whole world) on relatively small pages. Atlas maps provide a highly generalized picture of geographical features. However, an atlas serves as a valuable graphic encyclopedia, offering a wealth of generalized information about various geographical aspects like location, relief, drainage, climate zones, vegetation types, distribution of cities, population patterns, industrial locations, transportation networks, and significant tourist or heritage sites.

Types Of Maps Based On Function

Maps can also be classified based on their specific purpose or the type of information they are designed to convey. This classification broadly divides maps into physical maps and cultural maps.

Physical Maps

**Physical maps** depict the natural features and aspects of the Earth's surface and environment. They show elements created by natural processes.

Examples of physical maps include:

Relief Maps

**Relief maps** illustrate the shape and elevation of the land surface, showing features such as mountains, valleys, plains, plateaus, and hills. They represent the general topography and often use techniques like contour lines, shading, or color gradients to show elevation differences. Figure 1.7 shows the relief and slope map of Nagpur district.

Map showing relief and slope characteristics of Nagpur district, likely using contour lines or color shading to represent elevation and steepness.

Geological Maps

**Geological maps** display information about the Earth's subsurface structure, including the distribution of different rock types, geological formations, faults, folds, and mineral deposits. Figure 1.8 shows the distribution of rocks and minerals in Nagpur district.

Map showing the distribution of different rock types and possibly mineral locations within Nagpur district, likely using different colors or patterns for geological units.

Climatic Maps

**Climatic maps** represent various aspects of climate and weather. They can show climate regions, or the distribution of specific climatic elements such as average temperature, total rainfall, cloud cover, relative humidity, or the direction and velocity of winds. Figure 1.9 shows a map depicting climatic conditions of Nagpur district.

Map showing climatic conditions of Nagpur district, possibly average temperature, rainfall, or climatic zones.

Soil Maps

**Soil maps** illustrate the geographical distribution of different types of soils. They may also provide information about soil properties, such as texture, structure, and fertility. Figure 1.10 shows a soil map of Nagpur district.

Map showing the distribution of different soil types within Nagpur district, likely using different colors or patterns to represent soil categories.

Cultural Maps

**Cultural maps** (also known as human maps) depict features and patterns created or influenced by human activities and interactions with the environment. They show the spatial distribution of human phenomena.

Examples of cultural maps include:

Political Maps

**Political maps** show the administrative divisions of an area, such as the boundaries of countries, states, provinces, districts, or cities. They are essential for governmental administration, planning, and management of administrative units.

Population Maps

**Population maps** represent various demographic characteristics of a population. They can show the distribution of people (where they live), population density (how many people per unit area), population growth rates, age and sex composition, the distribution of different social, linguistic, or religious groups, and the occupational structure of the population. Population maps are vital tools for planning and development processes. Figure 1.11 shows the distribution of population in Nagpur district.

Map showing the distribution of population density or total population across different areas within Nagpur district, possibly using shading or symbols.

Economic Maps

**Economic maps** illustrate the spatial patterns of economic activities and resources. They can show the distribution of different types of crops, locations of mineral deposits or mining areas, the spatial arrangement of industries and markets, and routes for trade and the flow of commodities. Figure 1.12 shows land use and cropping patterns, and Figure 1.13 shows the location of industries in Nagpur district.

Map showing how land is used (e.g., agriculture, forest, urban) and the spatial patterns of different crops grown within Nagpur district.

Map showing the locations of various industrial sites or zones within Nagpur district, possibly using symbols.

Transportation Maps

**Transportation maps** depict the network of routes and facilities used for movement. This includes showing roads (highways, major roads), railway lines, the location of railway stations, airports, and sometimes ports or waterways. These maps are essential for travel, logistics, and transportation planning.

Uses Of Maps

Maps are indispensable tools used by geographers, urban planners, environmental scientists, resource managers, and many other professionals for understanding, analyzing, and making decisions about spatial information. Core uses of maps involve performing various measurements to determine distances, directions, and areas.

Measurement Of Distance

Maps allow for the measurement of distances between points or along features shown on the map. Linear features on maps can be broadly classified as either **straight lines** (like roads, railway lines, canals) or **erratic or zigzag lines** (like coastlines, rivers, streams).

Measuring distances along straight lines is straightforward; one can use a ruler, a pair of dividers, or a scale placed directly on the map. However, measuring distances along irregular or winding paths requires different techniques:

**Using a Thread:** A flexible thread can be placed along the curved line on the map, carefully following its path from the start to the end point. The thread is then straightened out and measured against the map's scale or a ruler to determine the distance.
**Using a Rotameter (or Curvimeter):** This is a specialized instrument with a small wheel. The wheel is rolled along the line on the map, and the instrument's dial records the distance traveled. The reading can then be converted to the actual ground distance using the map's scale.

Measurement Of Direction

**Direction** specifies the angular position of a point or feature relative to a fixed reference line. On a map, the standard reference is usually the **North direction**, which is represented by a line pointing towards geographical North. This line pointing North is considered the zero direction or the base direction. All other directions are determined in relation to North.

Knowing the North direction on a map allows users to determine the relative positions of different features (e.g., point A is east of point B). The four primary directions are North, South, East, and West, often referred to as the **cardinal points**. In addition, there are intermediate directions such as Northeast (NE), Southeast (SE), Southwest (SW), and Northwest (NW). More precise directions can be specified using bearings measured in degrees from North (e.g., $45^\circ$ is Northeast). Figure 1.14 shows the cardinal and intermediate directions.

Diagram showing a compass rose with the four cardinal points (North, South, East, West) and the four intermediate directions (Northeast, Southeast, Southwest, Northwest).

Measurement Of Area

Determining the geographical area of features like administrative units (districts, states) or geographical units (lakes, forests, basins) is another important use of maps. Several methods can be employed for area measurement on maps.

One simple method, although not highly accurate, involves using a grid pattern:

**Using Squares (Grid Method):** Overlay a grid of squares (like graph paper) on the area to be measured on the map, or trace the feature onto grid paper. Count the total number of 'whole squares' that fall entirely within the feature's boundary. Then, estimate the area covered by 'partial squares' that are partially inside the boundary (often by visually estimating the proportion of each partial square that is within the area, or by counting partial squares as half units). The total area on the map is calculated by summing the area of whole squares and the estimated area of partial squares. This map area is then converted to the actual ground area using the map's scale. If using square grid paper, Area = (Sum of whole squares + Sum of partial squares) $\times (\text{Map Scale})^2$.

A more accurate instrument for measuring area on a map is a **Planimeter**. A planimeter is a mechanical or electronic instrument used to trace the outline of an irregular area on a map. As the tracing arm of the planimeter is guided around the perimeter of the shape, a measuring wheel or electronic counter records the area. The reading obtained from the instrument, which is in instrumental units, is then converted to the actual ground area using a constant specific to the instrument and the map's scale.

Exercise

Multiple Choice Questions

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